“Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era: How Emperors Like Akbar Shaped India’s Multilingual Identity”

Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era: How Emperors Like Akbar Shaped India’s Multilingual Identity

India is a country with lots of languages. The origin of this diversity dates back to the conventional era-particularly in the Mughal Empire. The Mughals, and above all, Emperor Akbar attempted to create the world of pluralism. They are the ones who make other different languages coexist and even assist one another. The court of Akbar was a fusion of Persian, Urdu, Sanskrit and of numerous local dialects. It was the Mughals who brought about the circumstances, in which so many languages become rich to-day in India. This paper describes the Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era and how the rulers of Mughal left an indelible mark on the language identity of India, which continues to be used as a guide in education, literature, and government.

Introduction to the Mughal Era and Its Linguistic Significance

Timeline of the Mughal Dynasty in India

Mughal Empire was instituted with the defeat of Babur at the Battle of Panipat in 1526 and continued up until the mid-18th century and was slowly degraded due to the pressure of the British colonialism. The Mughals reigned over more than 300 years covering large territories of the contemporary India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and some of the areas in Afghanistan. The contributions of Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb are different in terms of their contributions to different languages and culture within the territories they ruled.

It is not only that they promoted Persian or gave birth to Urdu that makes the Mughal period exceptional in its linguistic approach since they were open to the local languages and dialects. These emperors especially Akbar realized that language was more than a means of communication but it can be used as a political instrument as well as source of culture.

Importance of Language in Imperial Governance

During the time of Mughals, language did not belong to poetry or scripture. It also formed part of the government operations. Persian being the language of influence in Central Asia and Islamic world in general became the court language. All edicts of the king, farman (imperial decree) and administrative manuals were written in Persian.

Concurrently, the regional languages did not get marginalized. Such emperors like Akbar in Mughal rule understood the strategic relevance of inclusiveness. There was a boom in translation departments. Interpreters were also crucial beings in the court. Language was therefore a unifier, and a soft power source..

Akbar the Great and His Language Policy

Akbar’s Multilingual Court

The most visionary of all the emperors of the dynasty was Akbar (15561605). He legitimised the practice of using more than one language. His palace was a kind of a junction of Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit and even Turkish. Akbar requested his scholars to translate the popular Hindu and Jain scripts to Persian language. The Mahabharata went by the name Razmnama, the Ramayana were known as Tuhfat al-Ramal in Persian and a great number of Sanskrit texts became accessible to the Persian-speaking upper classes.

Not all of the languages were spoken by Akbar personally but he knew the extent of political influence each of them carried. He established a more embracive empire by promoting the study of the local languages.

His courtiers like Abul Fazl put pen to paper and their energies went into detailed works like the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari written in Persian. They included a lot of Indian proverbs, abstract expressions, and cultural remarks. This was the hybridization of the Indic and Islamic cultures that introduced a courtly adaptation of language.

Language as a Tool of Administration and Diplomacy

Akbar knew that ruling a diverse population needed more than just military might. He used language strategically. Persian was the language of nobility and administration, but local vernaculars were used for tax collection, village-level governance, and religious dialogue. Translators and scribes were indispensable bureaucratic figures.

More interestingly, Akbar used language for diplomacy. His religious assemblies at Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri saw debates among Muslim theologians, Christian priests, Hindu pandits, and Jain monks. The ability to mediate these conversations required multilingual fluency and cultural literacy—something the Mughal court carefully cultivated.

The Role of Persian as the Official Language

Evolution of Persian under Mughal Patronage

Persian was introduced in India earlier to the Mughals with the arrival of earlier Islamic dynasties, although, during the Mughal rule it became a prestigious language spoken throughout the subcontinent. Persian literature came to the Mughal courts. The Persian language became the elegant language of the imperial culture used by such poets as Faizi, historians such as Badauni and administrators such as Abul Fazl.

The amazing thing is the birth of Indo-Persian which was a fusion of Indian themes and Persian literary styles. Mughal Persian was not some sort of dry and foreign language. It had been Indianized using metaphors, idioms and Indian references. This cross-cultural insemination had not only Persian as an imperial language but also a literary and an emotional language of so many Indian writers.

Persian’s Influence on Indian Vernaculars

Languages like the Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were greatly influenced by Persian. Persian gives a great number of official words: sarkar, zila, patwari are only a few examples. The Persian is also used by the people in terms of cultural concepts such as dastarkhwan, mehfil as well as ishq.

It also affected the writing systems. Urdu originated with the Persian Nastaalih writing style and even Hindi poets used Persian poetic styles like the ghazal and ruba ji.

The Mughal period is very difficult to omit in the history of formal Hindi and Urdu as they have a number of persianised words in them even today.

Development of Urdu during the Mughal Rule

Emergence of Urdu as a Cultural and Poetic Medium

Social interaction between the local elite and commoner and their Persian speech led to the emergence of Urdu. It emerged in military camps and was referred to as Zaban-e-Ordu that is a mixture of Persian, Arabic, Turkish and local Vernacular. It was later perfected and made dignified particularly when it received the patronage of the Mughal emperors and nobles.

Urdu was turned into a poetic and literary language in the Mughal heartlands including Delhi, Lucknow, and Agra. It was democratic in spirit as it connected elite and commoners. It was a mix of Persian grace and India heart.

Mughal Courts and the Nurturing of Urdu Poets

Most renowned Urdu poets were patronized and glorified in Mughal courts. It just flowered in the 18 th and 19 th century but it originated during the Mughals. Groundwork was laid by poets like Wali Dakkani and Amir Khusrau commonly referred to as the forefather of Urdu poetry.

In the later Mughals, Urdu was made the cultural language in North India. Mushairas (poetic gatherings), qawwalis and love tales all were performed in the Urdu language and this language seems to be at the center of Indo-Islamic culture.

Regional Languages and Their Flourishing

Akbar’s Policy of Tolerance and Vernacular Encouragement

The Persian and Urdu were the typically spoken languages in the Mughal court but the local languages were never marginalized. There is an evident policy of linguistic tolerance about which Akbar can speak well. He was also aware that the sub-continent was large, wide, multilingual and one language could not dominate all aspects of life.

The court of Akbar in the times which were there then sparked off translations of Hindu, Jain and even Buddhist scriptures. Sanskrit, a liturgical language that previously had hardly seen any translational access, entered state-controlled translation. Sanskrit was translated into Persian by special scholars in order to allow Muslims elite to read Indian philosophy. This democratic process of language gave the native literatures and languages a chance to survive and even grow with the dominant languages at the court.

A number of regional poet, dramatists and historians had been honored regardless of the language they conversed. Such languages as Bengali, Braj Bhasha, Rajasthani, and Marathi thrived on the local level, and Persian influenced their vocabulary and style. The inclusiveness of Akbar led to the circumstances through which the classical and the vernacular languages could both flourish simultaneously.

Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, and Others under Mughal Patronage

Although Persian did remain the language of power most Mughal rulers also learned classical Indian learning preserved in Sanskrit. Mahabharata, Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana were translated into Persian under orders of Akbar and some of his successors. The projects not only bridged the difference regarding culture but also included Indian narrative styles as elements in Persian prose.

In North India Braj Bhasha and Avadhi gained popularity in poetry and devotional songs. Around this time, such poets as Tulsidas composed the Ramcharitmanas in Avadhi a work to be cherished up to this day. Though the Mughal court did not ever favour such poetic movement directly, the stability which was brought about by the Mughal regime gave a room to these local languages to grow.

In Bengal, the local language started adopting Persian words and government terms especially on documents, commerce and law. In the south, Marathi and Tamil literature were subject to Mughal policy in less direct ways, but were influenced in similar fashion (by trade networks, and Mughal invasions into the Deccan).

Language and Education during the Mughal Period

Madrasas and Curriculum in Persian and Arabic

Under the Mughals education was strongly influenced by Islamic tradition, and madrasas were central to the language formation of the habits. Persian was the primary language of learning in the majority of state-sponsored and elite schools. Arabic was taught along with it and mostly so that the learners could read and study Quran and Hadith and the Islamic laws.

The common curriculum comprised a study of grammar (nahw), logic (mantiq), rhetoric (balagha) and literature (both in Persian and Arabic). Mathematics, astronomy, and medicine (Tibb) and philosophy were also taught. Persian versions of previously written Greek and Indian texts were frequent in textbooks.

Most of these centers gave a broader education despite this Islamic thrust. Akbar was particularly liberal. and he saw to it that the court-aid schools did not confine themselves to theological studies but had as well the instruction in Indian philosophies and Sanskrit logic in Persian versions (Nyaya Shastra).

Translation of Religious and Philosophical Texts

Akbar’s translation bureau, known as the Maktab Khana, was a groundbreaking initiative. Situated in Fatehpur Sikri, this department brought together scholars from diverse religious and linguistic backgrounds to translate major works into Persian. Among the texts translated were:

• The Mahabharata (Razmnama)
• The Ramayana
• The Atharva Veda
• Jain cosmological and philosophical works
• Buddhist Jataka tales

Dara Shikoh, Akbar’s great-grandson, continued this intellectual tradition. A mystic and scholar, he translated 50 Upanishads into Persian, aiming to find common ground between Hinduism and Islam. His work, Sirr-e-Akbar (The Great Secret), became a major reference for European Orientalists in the 18th and 19th centuries.

These translations enriched Persian vocabulary with Indian philosophical terms and made Hindu spiritual thought accessible to non-Hindu elites. It also established India as a space of cross-cultural dialogue and set a precedent for future translation projects.

Literature and Linguistic Syncretism

Literary Fusion: Persian Poetics and Indian Themes

The result of the Mughal language policies was one of the most interesting ones the emergence of some special sort of writing the Indo-Persian literature. Elements of the Persian genres, including the masnavi, ghazal, and qasida, were combined with Indian plots and settings and characters. The poet like Faizi, Abul Fazl and Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana composed writings that were form poetically Persian but Indian in soul.

They wrote about the Yamuna river, Indian monsoons, holidays such as Holi and even love stories, such as Laila-Majnun. Indian metaphors were added to persian idioms. This mixture enabled the cultures to rub shoulders and it was the linguistic foundation of the modern Hindi and Urdu literature.

Popular Texts and Their Linguistic Features

Some of the most prominent texts that emerged from this era include:

• Ain-i-Akbari – A Persian administrative and cultural encyclopedia
• Razmnama – Mahabharata in Persian, blending Sanskrit epic structure with Persian narrative flair
• Baharistan – A Persian moral fable collection with Indian parables
• Sirr-e-Akbar – Upanishads in Persian by Dara Shikoh

These texts were not mere translations; they were cultural reinterpretations. They reflect the linguistic flexibility of Mughal scholars and the empire’s openness to multiple traditions.

Linguistic Imprints on Modern Indian Languages

Vocabulary Borrowings in Hindi and Other Languages

The Indian languages still have the vestige of the Mughal linguistic legacies. The most popular Indian languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, and even Dravidian languages, such as Telugu have borrowed Persian and Arabic words that came to the subcontinent due to the influence of Mughals.

In Hindi to use their very example, the words kursi (chair), taareekh (date or history), mohabbat (love), shikayat (complaint), hukumat (government) and duniya (world) are of Persian or Arabic origin. These words entered the speech, literature, and even official language.

The urban cities of Delhi, Agra, and Lucknow were some of the main contributors to the use of the Mughal vocabulary. The culture of court went to the bottom of the daily life, and the words borrowed became so popular, that the modern Hindi and Urdu is impossible to imagine without.

Syntax and Grammar Influences

The Persian influence went beyond vocabulary. It affected syntax, idiomatic expressions, and even poetic metrics. Persian sentence construction often inspired poetic and prose rhythms in Urdu and Hindi. Even the concept of matla (opening verse) and maqta (closing signature verse) in ghazals comes from Persian tradition.

Hindi and Urdu, for instance, share similar grammatical structures, which can be partly attributed to the Mughal-era linguistic blending. While their scripts differ—Devanagari for Hindi and Nastaliq for Urdu—their sentence flow, structure, and usage patterns show deep-rooted historical ties.

Mughal Language Policy vs. British Language Policy

Persian to English: Transition in Colonial Period

One of the most significant linguistic shifts in Indian history occurred with the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British colonial rule. The British East India Company began to establish its dominance in India in the 18th century, and with it came a new language policy that prioritized English over Persian.

For over two centuries, Persian had been the court and administrative language across vast stretches of India. It was not only the medium of communication in Mughal courts but also used in official records, legal documents, educational institutions, and literature. However, in 1837, the British formally replaced Persian with English as the official language of administration.

This transition marked a significant cultural and linguistic rupture. The Mughal model had embraced multilingualism, promoting translation and coexistence of languages. In contrast, the British model emphasized a monolingual framework, with English being elevated as the language of the elite, administration, and eventually, higher education.

Decline of Persian and Rise of English in Academia

The decline of Persian was sharp and systemic. Educational institutions that had once taught Persian grammar and literature were either shut down or repurposed. New English-medium schools were established with a focus on producing clerks and officers who could serve the British bureaucracy.

Missionary schools, in particular, became centers of English learning. Persian was relegated to a secondary, almost antiquated status. Urdu tried to fill the vacuum in North India, but it faced its own challenges during the colonial and post-independence periods.

The effects of this transition still linger. While English became the aspirational language in India, the linguistic plurality nurtured by the Mughals was weakened, and the linguistic divide became more rigid between Indian vernaculars and the colonial language.

Multilingualism as a Mughal Legacy in Contemporary India

Official Recognition of Multiple Languages

Modern India’s recognition of 22 official languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution is, in part, a continuation of the Mughal legacy of linguistic inclusivity. The idea that a single language cannot represent the diversity of the Indian population echoes the Mughal understanding of linguistic plurality.

Akbar’s empire functioned across multiple linguistic zones, with administrators, soldiers, and scholars interacting in languages as varied as Persian, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, and Tamil. This decentralized linguistic model was a pragmatic response to India’s diversity—and a wise one.

Today, India continues to operate on a multi-language system where Hindi and English are co-official languages, but states are free to use regional languages in governance and education. This structure has roots in the Mughal practice of allowing local autonomy in language use while maintaining a unifying administrative language.

Cultural Coexistence and Linguistic Diversity Today

In contemporary India, the cultural mosaic is visible in everyday language use—code-switching between English, Hindi, Urdu, and regional dialects is a norm, especially in urban settings. The fusion of Hindi and Urdu into “Hinglish” is an extension of the linguistic experimentation that began under the Mughals.

Cinema, music, and television also reflect this multilingual legacy. Bollywood films, for instance, use a mix of Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi—a direct inheritance of the courtly culture of North India. Poetic traditions like the ghazal and qawwali, with their Indo-Persian roots, remain popular.

The Mughal linguistic legacy is thus not just historical—it’s alive in the way Indians speak, write, think, and create art today.

Important Mughal Scholars and Translators

Abul Fazl and the Ain-i-Akbari

Abul Fazl, one of the most celebrated intellectuals of the Mughal era, played a key role in documenting and shaping the linguistic culture of Akbar’s court. His magnum opus, Ain-i-Akbari, is more than an administrative manual—it’s a linguistic and cultural encyclopedia.

Written in Persian, the Ain-i-Akbari details everything from court customs to regional dialects, measurement systems, and agricultural practices. It offers insights into the multilingual composition of Akbar’s empire, listing terms in local languages and sometimes even explaining their etymology.

Abul Fazl’s elegant prose style became a model for future Persian writers in India. His work represents how the Mughals viewed knowledge: inclusive, encyclopedic, and multilingual.

Dara Shikoh and the Upanishad Translations

Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, stands out as a symbol of cultural syncretism. Unlike many other royals of his time, Dara had a deep interest in Hindu philosophy and mystical traditions. His quest to find common ground between Islam and Hinduism led him to translate the Upanishads into Persian.

These translations, compiled as Sirr-e-Akbar, were not merely literary exercises. They were philosophical projects aimed at bridging civilizational divides. Dara’s belief that “the Upanishads are the hidden books of monotheism” was revolutionary and reflected the Mughal tradition of intellectual openness.

His work would later influence European Orientalists like Anquetil-Duperron and shape Western interpretations of Indian philosophy.

Mughal Art, Architecture, and Language

Inscriptions and Calligraphy in Persian

Language wasn’t confined to books and scrolls during the Mughal era—it was carved in stone, etched in walls, and displayed as art. Persian inscriptions can be found on many Mughal monuments, from the Red Fort in Delhi to the Taj Mahal in Agra.

These inscriptions often featured verses from the Quran, Persian poetry, or eulogies praising the emperor. The calligraphy was done in the Nastaliq script, known for its elegance and fluidity. Artists like Amanat Khan were celebrated not just for their artistic skills but also for their poetic sense.

Through calligraphy, the Mughals turned language into a visual and architectural element. Every arch and dome bore testimony to the empire’s linguistic sophistication.

Symbolism in Language Use in Monuments

Language was used symbolically in Mughal architecture to convey power, spirituality, and legitimacy. Quranic verses on mosques signaled piety, while Persian poems on palaces symbolized refinement and imperial grandeur.

The Taj Mahal, for instance, features Persian inscriptions that celebrate both earthly love and divine mercy—perfectly capturing the blend of emotional and spiritual themes typical of Indo-Persian aesthetics.

Language in art was not just decorative—it was deeply meaningful. It reflected the ideals of the court, the personality of the ruler, and the cultural synthesis that defined the empire.

Role of Language in Mughal Religious Policy

Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi and Linguistic Inclusion

Akbar’s religious philosophy, known as Din-i Ilahi or the “Religion of God,” was an eclectic attempt to unite the spiritual truths of all religions. While it didn’t become a mass movement, it reflected Akbar’s commitment to dialogue—and that required multilingualism.

Akbar invited scholars from various traditions—Muslim, Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Christian—to discuss theology in his court. These debates were often held in multiple languages, with interpreters translating between Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and local dialects.

Language, in this context, was not a barrier but a bridge. It enabled the exchange of ideas and reinforced Akbar’s image as a tolerant and wise emperor.

Dialogues with Jain, Hindu, Christian Scholars

Akbar’s engagement with different religious communities was facilitated through language. He personally met with Jain monks, Hindu pandits, and Jesuit priests. Their scriptures and philosophies were translated into Persian, so they could be understood by the emperor and his court.

These dialogues played a key role in shaping the intellectual climate of the empire. Language was central to this process, acting as the medium through which worldviews were communicated and synthesized.

Linguistic Impact on Indian Education System

Pre-British Curriculum in Mughal India

Before the British overhaul of the Indian education system, Mughal India had a flourishing model of learning based on Islamic, Persian, and Indian traditions. Education was provided primarily through madrasas and maktabs, which focused on a combination of religious studies, language, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and literature.

Persian was the dominant language of instruction in the higher echelons of learning. Arabic was reserved for religious texts and legal studies, while Sanskrit was still taught in Hindu and Jain centers. Akbar’s inclusive approach enabled a curriculum that could accommodate a range of subjects and linguistic traditions.

Textbooks were often bilingual. For instance, Arabic grammar might be explained in Persian, while Sanskrit logic would be translated into Persian for Mughal scholars. This encouraged a multicultural, multilingual education system that prepared students for administrative, literary, and religious vocations.

Regional languages were also used in informal settings and elementary schools, particularly in rural areas. This multi-layered approach helped maintain India’s linguistic diversity even under a centralized empire.

Shifts in Medium of Instruction

The colonial education reforms introduced in the 19th century replaced Persian with English as the medium of instruction. This shift had long-term consequences. While the British emphasized science, rationality, and secularism, they also sidelined centuries of Indo-Persian knowledge.

Persian, once a language of intellect, became outdated in the eyes of the modern Indian elite. This transition created a generational gap between older scholars trained in Persian and younger ones molded in English. It also led to a decline in the study of Urdu, Arabic, and Sanskrit in formal institutions.

However, the foundations laid by the Mughal educational system persisted in the cultural memory. Many of the madrasa-based schools continued to operate independently and still do to this day, preserving the linguistic traditions established during the Mughal period.

Conclusion: The Enduring Linguistic Impact of the Mughals

The Mughal Empire was not just a political dynasty; it was a crucible of cultural and linguistic synthesis. Emperors like Akbar weren’t merely conquerors—they were architects of India’s multilingual identity. Through their policies, patronage, and openness to diverse traditions, the Mughals shaped a linguistic landscape that valued both classical excellence and vernacular expression.

Persian became the language of power, administration, and poetry, while Urdu evolved as a beautiful amalgam of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Indian dialects. Regional languages were allowed to flourish, and even classical Indian texts were embraced and translated, making Mughal India a true multilingual empire.

Today, we still see traces of this legacy in our vocabulary, poetry, education, legal systems, and daily speech. The Mughal ethos of multilingualism survives in India’s linguistic policies, in Bollywood scripts, and even in the mixed tongues of social media.

As the world becomes increasingly globalized, the Mughal model of linguistic harmony and cultural respect offers an important lesson: diversity is not a challenge to be managed, but a strength to be celebrated.

FAQs

1. What was the official language of the Mughal Empire?

The official language of the Mughal Empire was Persian. It was used in administration, courtly communication, literature, education, and law. Even local rulers under Mughal suzerainty adopted Persian for official records. However, regional languages and vernaculars were also widely spoken and encouraged for local governance.

2. How did Urdu evolve under the Mughals?

Urdu developed as a result of contact between Persian-speaking Mughal elites and native Indian populations. It began as a camp language (Zaban-e-Urdu) and eventually matured into a refined literary language. Influences from Arabic, Turkish, and Indian dialects contributed to its vocabulary and grammar. The Mughal courts, especially in later periods, supported Urdu poets and literature.

3. What was Akbar’s role in promoting multilingualism?

Akbar was instrumental in promoting multilingualism. He established a translation bureau that translated Sanskrit, Hindi, and Jain texts into Persian. He fostered a culture of intellectual pluralism by engaging scholars of different languages and religions. His court supported literary production in multiple languages, making his reign a golden age of linguistic harmony.

4. How did Mughal linguistic policies impact modern India?

Mughal linguistic policies laid the groundwork for India’s current multilingual framework. The use of Persian and the rise of Urdu influenced modern Hindi and regional languages. The Mughal emphasis on translation, education, and vernacular engagement continues in India’s current recognition of multiple official languages and its tolerance for linguistic diversity.

5. Which texts were translated during Mughal rule?

Many significant religious and philosophical texts were translated into Persian during the Mughal era. Notable translations include:

• Mahabharata (Razmnama)
• Ramayana
• Bhagavata Purana
• Jain Agamas
• Buddhist Jataka tales
• The Upanishads (Sirr-e-Akbar by Dara Shikoh)

These translations helped bridge cultural divides and allowed Islamic scholars to engage with Indian traditions in their own language.