“Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era: How Emperors Like Akbar Shaped India’s Multilingual Identity”

Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era: How Emperors Like Akbar Shaped India’s Multilingual Identity

India, a land known for its astonishing linguistic variety, owes much of its multilingual ethos to the medieval past—particularly the Mughal Empire. This imperial dynasty, especially under emperors like Akbar, consciously cultivated a pluralistic environment where multiple languages could not only coexist but also thrive. From Persian to Urdu, from Sanskrit to regional dialects, the Mughal courts and culture laid the foundation for India’s linguistic richness. This article dives deep into the Linguistic Legacy of the Mughal Era about how Mughal rulers shaped India’s language identity and left behind a legacy that continues to influence Indian society, education, literature, and governance.

Introduction to the Mughal Era and Its Linguistic Significance

Timeline of the Mughal Dynasty in India

The Mughal Empire began with Babur’s victory at the Battle of Panipat in 1526 and stretched until the mid-18th century, gradually diminishing under British colonial pressure. Spanning almost 300 years, the Mughals ruled vast regions of the subcontinent, including today’s India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Afghanistan. The emperors—Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb—each left distinct linguistic and cultural imprints on the territories they governed.

What makes the Mughal period exceptional from a linguistic perspective is not merely their promotion of Persian or the birth of Urdu, but their openness toward local languages and dialects. These emperors, particularly Akbar, recognized that language was not only a medium of communication but also a political tool and a cultural bridge.

Importance of Language in Imperial Governance

Language in the Mughal era wasn’t just about poetry or scripture—it was deeply entrenched in the mechanisms of governance. Persian, being the language of power in Central Asia and the Islamic world, naturally became the court language. Every royal edict, farman (imperial decree), and administrative manual was drafted in Persian.

But that didn’t mean regional languages were sidelined. On the contrary, Mughal emperors like Akbar saw the strategic necessity of linguistic inclusivity. Translation departments flourished. Interpreters held key positions in the royal court. Language acted as both a unifier and a medium for soft power.

Akbar the Great and His Language Policy

Akbar’s Multilingual Court

Arguably the most visionary emperor of the dynasty, Akbar (1556–1605) elevated multilingualism to a state policy. His court was a linguistic melting pot where Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit, and even Turkish coexisted. He commissioned translations of key Hindu and Jain scriptures into Persian. The Mahabharata became Razmnama, the Ramayana was translated into Persian, and numerous Sanskrit texts were made accessible to the Persian-speaking elite.

Akbar wasn’t fluent in all these languages himself, but he understood the political weight they carried. By respecting local tongues and encouraging their study, he built a more inclusive empire.

His court chroniclers, like Abul Fazl, wrote elaborate texts such as the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari in Persian, but filled them with references to Indian culture, proverbs, idioms, and institutions. This created a hybrid language landscape where Indic and Islamic traditions intertwined.

Language as a Tool of Administration and Diplomacy

Akbar knew that ruling a diverse population needed more than just military might. He used language strategically. Persian was the language of nobility and administration, but local vernaculars were used for tax collection, village-level governance, and religious dialogue. Translators and scribes were indispensable bureaucratic figures.

More interestingly, Akbar used language for diplomacy. His religious assemblies at Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri saw debates among Muslim theologians, Christian priests, Hindu pandits, and Jain monks. The ability to mediate these conversations required multilingual fluency and cultural literacy—something the Mughal court carefully cultivated.

The Role of Persian as the Official Language

Evolution of Persian under Mughal Patronage

Persian had been introduced in India before the Mughals by earlier Islamic dynasties, but under Mughal rule, it blossomed into a pan-Indian elite language. The Mughal courts became centers of Persian literary excellence. Poets like Faizi, historians like Badauni, and administrators like Abul Fazl turned Persian into the sophisticated language of imperial culture.

What’s remarkable is how Indo-Persian emerged—a dialect mixing Indian themes and Persian literary styles. Mughal Persian was not a dry, foreign tongue. It was enriched with Indian metaphors, idioms, and references. This cross-cultural fertilization made Persian not just an imperial language, but also a literary and emotional vehicle for many Indian writers.

Persian’s Influence on Indian Vernaculars

The influence of Persian on Indian languages like Hindi, Punjabi, and Bengali is vast. From administrative terms like sarkar, zila, and patwari to cultural words like dastarkhwan, mehfil, and ishq, the Persian vocabulary seeped deeply into local usage.

This blending extended to scripts as well. Urdu developed using the Persian Nastaliq script, and even Hindi poetry saw Persian aesthetics like the ghazal and ruba’i styles.

Even today, formal Hindi and Urdu share a significant amount of Persian-derived vocabulary, making the Mughal impact linguistically inescapable.

Development of Urdu during the Mughal Rule

Emergence of Urdu as a Cultural and Poetic Medium

Urdu was born out of everyday interactions between Persian-speaking elites and the local population. It started as a language of the military camps—Zaban-e-Ordu—a mix of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and local dialects. Over time, it became refined and dignified, especially under the patronage of Mughal emperors and nobility.

In the Mughal heartlands—Delhi, Lucknow, and Agra—Urdu emerged as a poetic and literary language. It was democratic in spirit, bridging the elite and the commoner. It combined Persian elegance with Indian soul.

Mughal Courts and the Nurturing of Urdu Poets

The Mughal courts provided shelter and fame to legendary Urdu poets. Though the language reached its zenith later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, its seeds were sown in the Mughal milieu. Poets like Wali Dakkani and Amir Khusrau—often considered a precursor to Urdu poetry—set the tone.

By the time of the later Mughals, Urdu had become the language of culture in North India. Mushairas (poetic gatherings), qawwalis, and even romantic narratives were composed in Urdu, making it a central part of Indo-Islamic culture.

Regional Languages and Their Flourishing

Akbar’s Policy of Tolerance and Vernacular Encouragement

While Persian and Urdu held central positions in Mughal courts, regional languages were never stifled. Akbar’s reign was especially marked by a strategic policy of linguistic tolerance. This wasn’t just a matter of benevolence—it was a necessity. The subcontinent was too vast, diverse, and multilingual for a single language to dominate every sphere.

Akbar’s court actively promoted translations of Hindu, Jain, and even Buddhist scriptures. Sanskrit, once primarily a liturgical language, found its way into state-sanctioned translations. Scholars were hired specifically to interpret Sanskrit into Persian, ensuring broader accessibility of Indian philosophy to the Muslim elite. This policy of “linguistic democratization” allowed native literatures and languages to survive and evolve alongside the dominant court tongues.

Furthermore, regional poets, dramatists, and historians were often rewarded and honored in court regardless of the language they composed in. Languages like Bengali, Braj Bhasha, Rajasthani, and Marathi flourished locally while Persian influenced their vocabulary and literary style. Akbar’s inclusive approach provided the framework for the parallel development of vernacular and classical languages.

Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, and Others under Mughal Patronage

Even though Persian remained the language of power, Akbar and some of his successors showed keen interest in classical Indian knowledge systems preserved in Sanskrit. He commissioned the translation of the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Bhagavata Purana into Persian. These projects not only bridged cultural gaps but also enriched Persian prose with Indian narrative styles.

In North India, Braj Bhasha and Avadhi began gaining prominence in poetry and devotional songs. Poets like Tulsidas composed the Ramcharitmanas in Avadhi during this era, a work that is still revered today. While not directly patronized by the Mughal court, the sociopolitical stability under the Mughals enabled these regional literary movements to thrive.

In Bengal, the regional language began absorbing Persian lexicon and administrative terms, particularly in documents, trade, and legal systems. Marathi and Tamil literature in the south were less directly impacted by Mughal policy but were nonetheless affected through interregional exchanges and Mughal invasions into the Deccan.

Language and Education during the Mughal Period

Madrasas and Curriculum in Persian and Arabic

Education under the Mughals was heavily influenced by Islamic traditions, and madrasas played a crucial role in shaping linguistic habits. Persian was the medium of instruction in most state-sponsored and elite educational institutions. Alongside it, Arabic was taught primarily for religious purposes, especially to understand the Quran, Hadith, and Islamic jurisprudence.

A typical curriculum included grammar (nahw), logic (mantiq), rhetoric (balagha), and literary studies in both Persian and Arabic. Philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine (Tibb) were also taught, often using Persian translations of earlier Greek and Indian texts.

Despite the Islamic influence, the curriculum was surprisingly inclusive in many centers. Akbar, in particular, encouraged a broader education. He ensured that court-sponsored schools did not merely limit themselves to theological studies but included Indian philosophies and Sanskrit logic (Nyaya Shastra) in translated form.

Translation of Religious and Philosophical Texts

Akbar’s translation bureau, known as the Maktab Khana, was a groundbreaking initiative. Situated in Fatehpur Sikri, this department brought together scholars from diverse religious and linguistic backgrounds to translate major works into Persian. Among the texts translated were:

• The Mahabharata (Razmnama)
• The Ramayana
• The Atharva Veda
• Jain cosmological and philosophical works
• Buddhist Jataka tales

Dara Shikoh, Akbar’s great-grandson, continued this intellectual tradition. A mystic and scholar, he translated 50 Upanishads into Persian, aiming to find common ground between Hinduism and Islam. His work, Sirr-e-Akbar (The Great Secret), became a major reference for European Orientalists in the 18th and 19th centuries.

These translations enriched Persian vocabulary with Indian philosophical terms and made Hindu spiritual thought accessible to non-Hindu elites. It also established India as a space of cross-cultural dialogue and set a precedent for future translation projects.

Literature and Linguistic Syncretism

Literary Fusion: Persian Poetics and Indian Themes

One of the most exciting outcomes of Mughal linguistic policies was the birth of a unique literary hybrid—Indo-Persian literature. This genre combined Persian literary forms like the masnavi, ghazal, and qasida with Indian mythology, landscapes, and characters. Writers such as Faizi, Abul Fazl, and Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana crafted works that were Persian in style but Indian in spirit.

Poems describing the Yamuna river, Indian monsoons, festivals like Holi, and even love tales like Laila-Majnun were localized in Indian settings. Persian idioms were adapted to include Indian metaphors. This syncretism allowed a cross-pollination of cultures and formed the linguistic basis of what would eventually be modern Hindi and Urdu literature.

Popular Texts and Their Linguistic Features

Some of the most prominent texts that emerged from this era include:

• Ain-i-Akbari – A Persian administrative and cultural encyclopedia
• Razmnama – Mahabharata in Persian, blending Sanskrit epic structure with Persian narrative flair
• Baharistan – A Persian moral fable collection with Indian parables
• Sirr-e-Akbar – Upanishads in Persian by Dara Shikoh

These texts were not mere translations; they were cultural reinterpretations. They reflect the linguistic flexibility of Mughal scholars and the empire’s openness to multiple traditions.

Linguistic Imprints on Modern Indian Languages

Vocabulary Borrowings in Hindi and Other Languages

The Mughal linguistic legacy is visibly embedded in the vocabulary of modern Indian languages. Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, and even Dravidian languages like Telugu have absorbed Persian and Arabic words that entered the Indian subcontinent through Mughal influence.

In Hindi, words like kursi (chair), taareekh (date/history), mohabbat (love), shikayat (complaint), hukumat (government), and duniya (world) are all of Persian or Arabic origin. These terms became part of everyday speech, literature, and even official language.

This was especially true in urban centers like Delhi, Agra, and Lucknow, where court culture influenced the speech of common people. Over time, these borrowings became so integral that it’s impossible to imagine modern Hindi or Urdu without them.

Syntax and Grammar Influences

The Persian influence went beyond vocabulary. It affected syntax, idiomatic expressions, and even poetic metrics. Persian sentence construction often inspired poetic and prose rhythms in Urdu and Hindi. Even the concept of matla (opening verse) and maqta (closing signature verse) in ghazals comes from Persian tradition.

Hindi and Urdu, for instance, share similar grammatical structures, which can be partly attributed to the Mughal-era linguistic blending. While their scripts differ—Devanagari for Hindi and Nastaliq for Urdu—their sentence flow, structure, and usage patterns show deep-rooted historical ties.

Mughal Language Policy vs. British Language Policy

Persian to English: Transition in Colonial Period

One of the most significant linguistic shifts in Indian history occurred with the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British colonial rule. The British East India Company began to establish its dominance in India in the 18th century, and with it came a new language policy that prioritized English over Persian.

For over two centuries, Persian had been the court and administrative language across vast stretches of India. It was not only the medium of communication in Mughal courts but also used in official records, legal documents, educational institutions, and literature. However, in 1837, the British formally replaced Persian with English as the official language of administration.

This transition marked a significant cultural and linguistic rupture. The Mughal model had embraced multilingualism, promoting translation and coexistence of languages. In contrast, the British model emphasized a monolingual framework, with English being elevated as the language of the elite, administration, and eventually, higher education.

Decline of Persian and Rise of English in Academia

The decline of Persian was sharp and systemic. Educational institutions that had once taught Persian grammar and literature were either shut down or repurposed. New English-medium schools were established with a focus on producing clerks and officers who could serve the British bureaucracy.

Missionary schools, in particular, became centers of English learning. Persian was relegated to a secondary, almost antiquated status. Urdu tried to fill the vacuum in North India, but it faced its own challenges during the colonial and post-independence periods.

The effects of this transition still linger. While English became the aspirational language in India, the linguistic plurality nurtured by the Mughals was weakened, and the linguistic divide became more rigid between Indian vernaculars and the colonial language.

Multilingualism as a Mughal Legacy in Contemporary India

Official Recognition of Multiple Languages

Modern India’s recognition of 22 official languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution is, in part, a continuation of the Mughal legacy of linguistic inclusivity. The idea that a single language cannot represent the diversity of the Indian population echoes the Mughal understanding of linguistic plurality.

Akbar’s empire functioned across multiple linguistic zones, with administrators, soldiers, and scholars interacting in languages as varied as Persian, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, and Tamil. This decentralized linguistic model was a pragmatic response to India’s diversity—and a wise one.

Today, India continues to operate on a multi-language system where Hindi and English are co-official languages, but states are free to use regional languages in governance and education. This structure has roots in the Mughal practice of allowing local autonomy in language use while maintaining a unifying administrative language.

Cultural Coexistence and Linguistic Diversity Today

In contemporary India, the cultural mosaic is visible in everyday language use—code-switching between English, Hindi, Urdu, and regional dialects is a norm, especially in urban settings. The fusion of Hindi and Urdu into “Hinglish” is an extension of the linguistic experimentation that began under the Mughals.

Cinema, music, and television also reflect this multilingual legacy. Bollywood films, for instance, use a mix of Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi—a direct inheritance of the courtly culture of North India. Poetic traditions like the ghazal and qawwali, with their Indo-Persian roots, remain popular.

The Mughal linguistic legacy is thus not just historical—it’s alive in the way Indians speak, write, think, and create art today.

Important Mughal Scholars and Translators

Abul Fazl and the Ain-i-Akbari

Abul Fazl, one of the most celebrated intellectuals of the Mughal era, played a key role in documenting and shaping the linguistic culture of Akbar’s court. His magnum opus, Ain-i-Akbari, is more than an administrative manual—it’s a linguistic and cultural encyclopedia.

Written in Persian, the Ain-i-Akbari details everything from court customs to regional dialects, measurement systems, and agricultural practices. It offers insights into the multilingual composition of Akbar’s empire, listing terms in local languages and sometimes even explaining their etymology.

Abul Fazl’s elegant prose style became a model for future Persian writers in India. His work represents how the Mughals viewed knowledge: inclusive, encyclopedic, and multilingual.

Dara Shikoh and the Upanishad Translations

Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, stands out as a symbol of cultural syncretism. Unlike many other royals of his time, Dara had a deep interest in Hindu philosophy and mystical traditions. His quest to find common ground between Islam and Hinduism led him to translate the Upanishads into Persian.

These translations, compiled as Sirr-e-Akbar, were not merely literary exercises. They were philosophical projects aimed at bridging civilizational divides. Dara’s belief that “the Upanishads are the hidden books of monotheism” was revolutionary and reflected the Mughal tradition of intellectual openness.

His work would later influence European Orientalists like Anquetil-Duperron and shape Western interpretations of Indian philosophy.

Mughal Art, Architecture, and Language

Inscriptions and Calligraphy in Persian

Language wasn’t confined to books and scrolls during the Mughal era—it was carved in stone, etched in walls, and displayed as art. Persian inscriptions can be found on many Mughal monuments, from the Red Fort in Delhi to the Taj Mahal in Agra.

These inscriptions often featured verses from the Quran, Persian poetry, or eulogies praising the emperor. The calligraphy was done in the Nastaliq script, known for its elegance and fluidity. Artists like Amanat Khan were celebrated not just for their artistic skills but also for their poetic sense.

Through calligraphy, the Mughals turned language into a visual and architectural element. Every arch and dome bore testimony to the empire’s linguistic sophistication.

Symbolism in Language Use in Monuments

Language was used symbolically in Mughal architecture to convey power, spirituality, and legitimacy. Quranic verses on mosques signaled piety, while Persian poems on palaces symbolized refinement and imperial grandeur.

The Taj Mahal, for instance, features Persian inscriptions that celebrate both earthly love and divine mercy—perfectly capturing the blend of emotional and spiritual themes typical of Indo-Persian aesthetics.

Language in art was not just decorative—it was deeply meaningful. It reflected the ideals of the court, the personality of the ruler, and the cultural synthesis that defined the empire.

Role of Language in Mughal Religious Policy

Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi and Linguistic Inclusion

Akbar’s religious philosophy, known as Din-i Ilahi or the “Religion of God,” was an eclectic attempt to unite the spiritual truths of all religions. While it didn’t become a mass movement, it reflected Akbar’s commitment to dialogue—and that required multilingualism.

Akbar invited scholars from various traditions—Muslim, Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Christian—to discuss theology in his court. These debates were often held in multiple languages, with interpreters translating between Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and local dialects.

Language, in this context, was not a barrier but a bridge. It enabled the exchange of ideas and reinforced Akbar’s image as a tolerant and wise emperor.

Dialogues with Jain, Hindu, Christian Scholars

Akbar’s engagement with different religious communities was facilitated through language. He personally met with Jain monks, Hindu pandits, and Jesuit priests. Their scriptures and philosophies were translated into Persian, so they could be understood by the emperor and his court.

These dialogues played a key role in shaping the intellectual climate of the empire. Language was central to this process, acting as the medium through which worldviews were communicated and synthesized.

Linguistic Impact on Indian Education System

Pre-British Curriculum in Mughal India

Before the British overhaul of the Indian education system, Mughal India had a flourishing model of learning based on Islamic, Persian, and Indian traditions. Education was provided primarily through madrasas and maktabs, which focused on a combination of religious studies, language, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and literature.

Persian was the dominant language of instruction in the higher echelons of learning. Arabic was reserved for religious texts and legal studies, while Sanskrit was still taught in Hindu and Jain centers. Akbar’s inclusive approach enabled a curriculum that could accommodate a range of subjects and linguistic traditions.

Textbooks were often bilingual. For instance, Arabic grammar might be explained in Persian, while Sanskrit logic would be translated into Persian for Mughal scholars. This encouraged a multicultural, multilingual education system that prepared students for administrative, literary, and religious vocations.

Regional languages were also used in informal settings and elementary schools, particularly in rural areas. This multi-layered approach helped maintain India’s linguistic diversity even under a centralized empire.

Shifts in Medium of Instruction

The colonial education reforms introduced in the 19th century replaced Persian with English as the medium of instruction. This shift had long-term consequences. While the British emphasized science, rationality, and secularism, they also sidelined centuries of Indo-Persian knowledge.

Persian, once a language of intellect, became outdated in the eyes of the modern Indian elite. This transition created a generational gap between older scholars trained in Persian and younger ones molded in English. It also led to a decline in the study of Urdu, Arabic, and Sanskrit in formal institutions.

However, the foundations laid by the Mughal educational system persisted in the cultural memory. Many of the madrasa-based schools continued to operate independently and still do to this day, preserving the linguistic traditions established during the Mughal period.

Conclusion: The Enduring Linguistic Impact of the Mughals

The Mughal Empire was not just a political dynasty; it was a crucible of cultural and linguistic synthesis. Emperors like Akbar weren’t merely conquerors—they were architects of India’s multilingual identity. Through their policies, patronage, and openness to diverse traditions, the Mughals shaped a linguistic landscape that valued both classical excellence and vernacular expression.

Persian became the language of power, administration, and poetry, while Urdu evolved as a beautiful amalgam of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Indian dialects. Regional languages were allowed to flourish, and even classical Indian texts were embraced and translated, making Mughal India a true multilingual empire.

Today, we still see traces of this legacy in our vocabulary, poetry, education, legal systems, and daily speech. The Mughal ethos of multilingualism survives in India’s linguistic policies, in Bollywood scripts, and even in the mixed tongues of social media.

As the world becomes increasingly globalized, the Mughal model of linguistic harmony and cultural respect offers an important lesson: diversity is not a challenge to be managed, but a strength to be celebrated.

FAQs

1. What was the official language of the Mughal Empire?

The official language of the Mughal Empire was Persian. It was used in administration, courtly communication, literature, education, and law. Even local rulers under Mughal suzerainty adopted Persian for official records. However, regional languages and vernaculars were also widely spoken and encouraged for local governance.

2. How did Urdu evolve under the Mughals?

Urdu developed as a result of contact between Persian-speaking Mughal elites and native Indian populations. It began as a camp language (Zaban-e-Urdu) and eventually matured into a refined literary language. Influences from Arabic, Turkish, and Indian dialects contributed to its vocabulary and grammar. The Mughal courts, especially in later periods, supported Urdu poets and literature.

3. What was Akbar’s role in promoting multilingualism?

Akbar was instrumental in promoting multilingualism. He established a translation bureau that translated Sanskrit, Hindi, and Jain texts into Persian. He fostered a culture of intellectual pluralism by engaging scholars of different languages and religions. His court supported literary production in multiple languages, making his reign a golden age of linguistic harmony.

4. How did Mughal linguistic policies impact modern India?

Mughal linguistic policies laid the groundwork for India’s current multilingual framework. The use of Persian and the rise of Urdu influenced modern Hindi and regional languages. The Mughal emphasis on translation, education, and vernacular engagement continues in India’s current recognition of multiple official languages and its tolerance for linguistic diversity.

5. Which texts were translated during Mughal rule?

Many significant religious and philosophical texts were translated into Persian during the Mughal era. Notable translations include:

• Mahabharata (Razmnama)
• Ramayana
• Bhagavata Purana
• Jain Agamas
• Buddhist Jataka tales
• The Upanishads (Sirr-e-Akbar by Dara Shikoh)

These translations helped bridge cultural divides and allowed Islamic scholars to engage with Indian traditions in their own language.